Defining leadership as a process and property

Defining leadership as a process and property In defining leadership Jago (1982, p.315) states leadership is both a process and a property. The process involves influencing group members to undertake activities that will lead to the accomplishment of the group objective, while the property refers to the set of characteristics believed to be held by those with influence. Leadership theory began by focusing on traits but has since followed a varied course in the search for conclusive evidence on the factors that affect leadership. In this report we will focus on the dyadic process of leadership, looking at the leader as an individual (Lussier Achua, 2009) and will assume that leadership effectiveness will only be understood by looking at the influence of the leader on their followers. We will concentrate on three major theories trait, behavioural or style and situational. Trait Lussier Achua (2009, p. 16) proposes that leadership trait theories attempt to explain distinctive characteristics accounting for leadership effectiveness. Traits were initially thought to be innate or heritable qualities of the individual(Zaccaro,J.S,2007)   This perspective shifted to include all the other enduring qualities that distinguished leaders from Non-leaders. (Kiripatrick and Locke,1991 as cited in Zaccaro,J.S.,2007) There is strong evidence to prove that traits contribute significantly towards leader effectiveness, leader emergence, and leader advancement.()The following are some of the traits which each of us believed lacked in us following group discussion: Decisiveness Barlet Decisiveness is often identified as a key trait in leadership (Ghiselli, 1971 as cited in Lussier, 2008). It involves the ability to logically analyze a situation and make a decision in a timely manner. A leaders decisiveness also provides clarity and direction and gives others confidence in that leader. Readiness to make decisions was identified as a key personality trait that predicted a managerial advancement (Howard Bray, 1983 as cited in Hogan, Curphy and Hogan, 1994). Barlet has identified decisiveness as a weakness, especially in high stress situations where a quick and effective decision was required. After discussing with the group and analysing situations where Barlet lacked that ability to make the decision, it has been identified a number of steps to improve decisiveness. One was to have a procedure where a situation could be analysed and decision made quickly. Its also important to trust yourself and not be afraid of making the wrong decision. Motivation Saran Motivation is a key element of any type of leadership, whether the leader is informal, bureaucratic or and expert it is vital for the individual to be motivated. Three types of motivation stand out with regards to leadership. The first is the goals to which human behaviour is directed, the seconded involves how these goals are selected and pursued and the last involves the process of influencing others. (Huczynski and Buchanan, 1991) After discussion of these three factors with regard to Sarans ability to lead, we found some serious flaws in his motivation. The clearest point that emerged from the discussion was that to lead one must be able to achieve the targets of the task, build and develop the team and have concern for the individuals in the team. (Pettinger, 2007)   It was found that Saran had a clear and genuine concern for the individuals he was responsible for. The problems arose when trying to achieve the task. This problem was there because the goals to which his behaviour was directed did not compliment the task. The priority that Saran gave was based on his own goals, what motivates him to do the task in hand was not what necessarily what motivated Saran. This ultimately led to the problem becoming more and more difficult, and in many cases a serious trade off between time and quality had to be made.   This task has lead Saran to look at the basic attitudes towards goals, by changing this we beli eve he will be able to look at the prioritisation of tasks in a whole new light, completely transforming his ability qto   leaded. Self-confidence Jenny Research on leadership traits has consistently shown that self-confidence is considered to be an important characteristic (Hollenbeck Hall, 2004). McCormick (2001, p.) describes self-confidence as the following: Self-confidence refers to peoples self-judgement of their capabilities and skills, or their perceived competence to deal successfully with the demands of a variety of situations.   Up to now Jenny has persistently shown a lack of self-confidence when undertaking tasks and leading others. She feels particularly uncomfortable when she has to make a decision for a group as she usually has doubts about whether or not it is the correct decision. The group suggested that by increasing her task understanding, by breaking it into specific components, and knowledge Jenny could become more confident as she would have evidence to support her decision making. Hollenbeck and Hall (2004) suggests that self-confidence is built up by a process of taking a small risk and making progress to wards achieving a certain goal. Success in this will lead to increased confidence in your abilities. therefore Jenny would need to begin to take small risks also. Initiative Sandy Initiative has been defined as a leading action or a commencing movement, often associated with the first action of a matter. Effective leaders take initiative. This involves being proactive and making decisions that lead to change instead of just reacting to events or waiting for others to take action (Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991). In most situations, Sandy has been finding it difficult to demonstrate initiative because she has high agreeableness, and very often prefer to listen to other members suggestions. She lacks self-assurance that she is uncertain about her own opinion, and therefore finds other peoples opinion more favourable. Research on leadership and personality has stated the importance of initiative and persistence in relation to effective leadership, and so by having other qualities such as conscientious and tenacity which are related to the above traits may help (Judge et.al., 2002). Sandy felt she do not have experiences in taking initiative because she felt she is n ot knowledgeable and informative enough. Our group agreed that Sandy should believe in herself and try to improve by gaining more knowledge, and do not have fear to speak up and be arrogant in a good way. Dominance Athmika Dominance was amongst one of the important traits associated with leadership and leader perception (Mann, 1959, as cited in Lord, De Vader and Alliger, 1986). Smith and Foti (1998) have listed several studies that show that dominance has positive correlations with leadership perceptions and people that score high in dominance tend to find themselves in a leadership position. Anderson and Kilduff (2009) found that people who are deemed as being highly dominant in relation to traits were likely to be categorized by other group members as more competent than they actually are. Athmika has always been a team player and values team opinions over hers. From her personal experiences and while discussing with the team, she realised dominance was a trait she lacked the most. To be more dominant, she should have faith in her ideas and be able to influence her group with her ideas. She can do this by reading extensively about the task which would guide her to make   informed decisions. Also, she should voice her opinion out strongly which would make her feel more in control of the situation. Behavioral Leadership theory progressed from researching traits to looking at the impact of behaviour style. Two main types emerged from the research body; task and relationship behaviours. Task behaviours facilitate goal accomplishment (Northouse, 2004) and relationship behaviours focus on how comfortable subordinates feel in a situation (Northouse, 2004). Communication Barlet Communication is essentially the ability to transmit a message from one person to the other, whether this is information, an idea, a feeling or an emotion (Pardey, 2007). Pardey (2007) also identifies communication as one of five critical skills for all leaders and according to Bass (1990, cited by Bligh and Hess, 2007) as communications distinguishes leaders who are successful and effective from those who are not. An effective leader is one who has a deep understanding of others and has the ability to establish a shared vision and motivate those around them (Parker and Stone, 2003). Effective communication is instrumental for all those things to occur and frequently it is the solution to many difficulties faced by an organization (Ashman and Lawler, 2008). So far Barlet has not been particularly effective in communicating his ideas clearly, and this in some cases has undermined the quality and depth of his work. After discussing this with the team members, it was identified that ora l communication and presentation skills specifically were his weaknesses and it was suggested that thorough knowledge of the subject being discussed as well as practice would help in getting the message through and eventually improve communication. Improving tolerance Saran Tolerance is described in many sources as a prerequisite to leadership, not having it places a cloud over ones judgment and leads to inefficient use of resources. Drucker 1993 believed to achieve results, one has to use all the available strengths the strengths of the associates A lack of tolerant behaviour comes from two elements, ones own ego and personal aspirations, as well as the personality and views held. This as an issue as not being able to get the full use of the people being lead is a poor form of leadership. After discussion it was found that this behaviour became more dangerous when leading people who are described as total miss-fits and poor fits by the eligibility versus suitability quadrant. Trusting others ideas Jenny Jenny sees herself as task focused. When working on projects she has difficulty trusting others to deliver top quality work. She finds herself carefully double checking other team members work and this can make the team members feel degraded. According to Blake Moutons Managerial Grid ® she would have an Authority-Compliance style. This makes her concern for results high but her concern for people is at the lower end of the spectrum. Based on this Managerial Grid one way that Jennys behaviour could be altered would be to engage in more people focused activities. She could become more concerned in the interests, needs and problems of her followers (Doyle Smith, 2001). The group suggested that one way to also improve this was match the task at hand to the abilities of each group member, meaning that Jennys trust in them would be increased by her knowledge that they were skilled in that task. Another suggestion was to attempt to communicate more clearly to the group members the task requirements and thus reduce ambiguity. Finally Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002) suggest that increasing time spent monitoring may make leaders more effective. Giving instructions Sandy As leadership is about gaining power to influence others through communication (Northouse, 2010), it is essential that a leader should be able to give instructions. Lussier and Achua believes that in any supervisory role, such as how well a manager give instructions will directly affect their leadership ability of leading and motivating employees in accomplishing the task (Lussier and Achua, 2003). Sandy finds it difficult to state her objective in a precise and clear manner, due to the lack of confidence and partly because she is not able to use her voice effectively to catch the attention. Therefore, her message becomes difficult to transmit and deliver to other people. Moreover, Sandy described herself as the democratic decision-making leadership style, that she allows people to make their own decisions and only state her opinion in the final stage of the discussion (Lewins leadership style). Therefore, she often fails to give instructions as a leader and become more of a facilita tor when reaching consensus in the group. In order to improve, she should develop a relationship with her group and become more empathic in their needs, as well as checking the receivers understanding to ensure they know what objectives they have to attain. And also make sure these tasks are achievable and have it done by a certain amount of time. Sandy should use her influence power and be more persuasive as an authority to follow up at these situations (Lussier and Achua, 2003). Time Management Athmika Schuler (1979, p. 854, as cited by Macan, 1994) asserted that time management means less stress for individuals, which means more efficient, satisfied, healthy employees, which in turn means more effective organizations. Athmika has always faced problems with proper time allocation of her work. She tends to procrastinate her work until the impending deadline. This leads to unnecessary stress and has also impeded her performance significantly. On discussion with the group, the group suggested that Athmika has to be more task-oriented and should organize her work as described under initiating structure in the Ohio state studies (Stogdill, 1974, as cited in Northouse, 2004). She should prioritize her work by preparing time audits. She also can improve her time management skills by setting realistic and attainable goals. Situational Leadership Fielder (1967) stated that there is no ideal leader, and that both relationship-oriented and task-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership style fits the situation. Fielders Contingency Theory is one theory where the effectiveness of a leaders behaviour is determined by the situation he or she confronts. Fiedler stated that it was much easier for individuals to find a situation that matched their leadership style than to change their style to fit the situation (Stroh, Northcraft and Neale, 2002). In contrast to this, the Situational Leadership Model suggests that leaders should adopt their style. Hersey and Blanchard (1993, as cited in Fernandez and Vecchio, 1997) stated that leaders are most effective when they employ a leadership style which is most appropriate to the situation they face and to the followers readiness and maturity to complete the task. Path-Goal theory is another model which states that an effective leader is able to clarify the path to various goals o f interest and provide the opportunity/path for the follower to achieve such goals. This then should promote job satisfaction, leader acceptance and high effort (Stroh, Northcraft and Neale, 2002). Delegating situations Barlet Delegating is one of the four leadership styles characterized by Hersey and Blanchard (1977 as cited in Graeff, 1997). It involves the leader passing tasks or responsibilities to an individual or group while the leader is still involved in monitoring the progress. So far, Barlet has not been particularly effective in these situations, and this has often delayed progress and limited performance as he. This has mainly been due to his lack of trust in the team members ability to do a certain task, but also due to his indecisiveness. Hersey (1985) stated that a good leader develops the competence and commitment of their people so theyre self-motivated rather than dependent on others for direction and guidance and in this case, the leaders high expectations causes high performance by the followers. Therefore trusting your people and showing confidence in them by passing responsibility and allowing them to complete a task will get the best out of your team and it is a situation where Barle t needs to improve. While playing vLeader, Barlets natural style was very directing, speaking most of the time and controlling the conversation and kept scenario length very short. In scenario one, Barlet did most of the work in every idea and did not let Olie participate or speak much. While in this case it worked, in many other situations the leader has to focus on the overall objective and delegation becomes more important. This was clearly demonstrated in the Wolfgang Keller case study (Gabarro, 1997 (part of module readings)) where Keller realised that being able to delegate operations was important in allowing him to progress further in the organisation. Supporing situations Sara Supporting situations require a low directive and highly supportive behaviour. (Northouse, 2004)   Ã‚  The S3 square in the four leadership styles is a situation where the task receives more focus than the people.   Being able to act with this leadership quality would allow a leader to flourish in a situation where low motivation   and a some level of skills were present. This situation is becoming more prevalent as Druckers knowledge worker theory become more common place in the work place. Saran finds that when leading a team he does not always actively acknowledge another team members input, this will lead to individuals feeling that they have not been appreciated. After discussion it was decided that Saran should be more empathetic and less task orientated. He could achieve this by   dedicating more time to handing out instructions for the task. Setting goals could also play a part with regular progress reviews forcing a more supportive role. Another strategy could also b e to change his leadership style to a less authoritarian one. Unstructured situations Jenny A situation where Jenny felt she was weak in terms of leadership was one with little structure or direction on how to complete it. Typically in these situations Jenny finds herself being hesitant to direct the group in case she is not undertaking the correct procedure to get a positive end result. Fiedlers Contingency Theory (1964, as cited in Northouse, 2004, p. 109) looks at the impact of a unstructured situation in terms of leadership. Fiedlers Contingency Theory attempts to match the leaders style to the situation as a means of attaining effective leadership. Fiedlers model is based on the leader being task or relationship focused. Situational variables are also taken into account and these are characterised by looking at three factors: leader member relations, task structure and position power (Northouse, 2004). This theory does not however offer an explanation of what can be changed if the leader style cannot be matched to the situation. The group came up with several ways in w hich Jenny could improve in this situation. These included focusing on the goal of the task and try to use the other team members to contribute ideas about how to develop a plan to reach it. Jago (1982) also mentions that in such situations one should try to alter the situational variables by training although the usefulness of such training is not unequivocal. Stressful Situation Sandy Sandy often feels difficult in dealing with stressful situations, especially in demanding situations that focused specifically the performance of her work in a social environment setting. There are conventional views of leaders being a crucial and significant impact on their performance in organizations, that they are constrained with respect to different performance outcomes (Thomas, 1988). The Cognitive resource theory also proposed that stress has been a key factor and had a great impact in determining how intelligence can affect performance (Fielder 1987). And therefore in most stressful situations, since intelligence become less important but higher performance is required; Sandy experienced difficulty in using her knowledge to solve problems and these expectations has created an uncomfortable and undesirable feeling in which Sandy felt challenging in accomplishing the tasks. Situational Leadership theory by Blanchard (1985) discussed that different leadership style has to be ap plied appropriately to a given situation, depending on the competence and commitments of the subordinates (Northouse, 2004). So Sandy should try to include both directive (task-orientated) behaviours and supportive (relationship-orientated) behaviours, and focuses on goal achievement, and also be supportive and meet the needs of the subordinates (Northouse, 2004). To improve, Sandy should try to anticipate and plan ahead, establish objectives and goals at an early stage, and to prepare herself for the unexpected. She also needs to reflect on her performance, learn from the failure experiences and make necessary changes. Directing unfamiliar situations Athmika Athmika finds herself handicapped when faced with new, unfamiliar, or critical situations when the team faces a challenge where she is required to take on a directive leadership style. Directive leadership is defined as providing the members with a framework for decision making and action in alignment with the leaders vision (Fiedler, 1989, 1995; Sagie, 1997; Stogdill, 1974, as cited by Somech 2006, p. 135). Being directive requires the leader to communicate their knowledge and expertise to the group and also telling them how to complete the work (Murphy, Blyth Fielder, 1992). In order to lead in such situations, the group suggested that Athmika should have a good working knowledge of the task and a clear vision on how to achieve it. Athmika should play an active role in problem solving and decision making in order to be more directive (Bass, 1981, as cited in Murphy, Blyth Fielder, 1992). Conclusion Hackman and Wageman (2007) believe that despite the reams of research that have been conducted on leadership the field still remains notably unformed. Building on this Zaccaro (2007) states that within the trait theory of leadership a general consensus has also yet to emerge from the research regarding the role of leader traits, the degree of their influence and how they influence leadership, and the part they play in leadership situations. However leadership is still seen as being an important construct to undertake research on as well as being important as a social phenomenon (Hackman Wageman, 2007). Avolio has proposed the idea that new research are required to acknowledge how leaders have learnt from their past experiences, particularly how they respond and cope in difficult situations. Failure and error has provided opportunities for learning than success, and these experiences will generate data to affect ones assumptions and actions for improvements next time (Hackman Wageman, 2007). However, such decisions are not easy because it require an individual to overcome ones own reasoning, mental model, behaviour routines and may provoke anxiety (Hackman Wageman, 2007). One may argue that if we have already developed a leadership style, it will be rather fixed and consistent that will be difficult to change, others may argue that leadership styles should be changed according to situations in order to be more effective. Fielders contingency theory (1964) has introduced the idea that leadership effectiveness is depending on the suitability of the leader assign to a particular cont ext. As a result, different leadership styles will be matched to different situations; and therefore our group believe that there are still room for improvement for our traits and behaviours to match with a specific situation.

Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God and Holden Caulfield in The Catc

"Dey all useter call me Alphabet 'cause so many people had done named me different names," Janie says (Hurston 9). The nickname "Alphabet" is fitting in Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God because Janie is always changing and rearraging, never the same. Janie Crawford was constantly searching for happiness, self-realization, and her own voice. Janie dares not to fit the mold, but rather defy it to get what she wants. On the journey to find her voice, she marries three separate men and each one of these men contribute to Janie’s quest in different ways. In the beginning, the pear tree symbolizes Janie’s yearning to find within herself the sort of harmony and simplicity that nature embodies. However, that idealized view changes when Janie is forced to marry Logan Killicks, a wealthy and well-respected man whom Janie’s Nanny set her up with. Because Janie does not know anything about love, she believes that even if she does not love Logan yet, she will find it when they marry. Upon marrying Logan, she had to learn to love him for what he did, not for that infallible love every woman deserves.  After a year of pampering, Logan becomes demanding and rude, he went as far to try to force Janie to do farm work. It was when this happened that Janie decided to take a stand and run away with Joe. At this time, Janie appears to have found a part of her voice and strong will. In a way, she gains a sense of independence and realizes she has the power to walk away from an unhealthy situation and does not have to be a slave to her own husband. After moving to Eatonville and marrying Joe, Janie discovers that people are not always who they seem to be. While Joe at first seemed to be easy-going and friendly, she wa... ... stay" (Salinger 205). He is repulsed by fake people and wants to be satisfied by something real--something true he can grasp onto. Just as Janie is similar to Holden, Holden is also similar to Janie. Janie is a woman who has overcome the rules and restrictions she was given. Janie was nothing but "a rut in the road. Plenty of life beneath the surface but it was kept beaten down by the wheels" (Hurston 72). Eventually, Janie made it her purpose to rebel against this mold. By the end of the story, Janie has accomplished finding and conquering self-actualization, she has reached her enlightenment through the her marriages to Logan, Jody, and Tea Cake. It is apparant when she tells Pheoby, â€Å"You got tuh go there tuh know  there..Two things everybody's got tuh do fuh theyselves. They got tuh go tuh God, and they got tuh find out about livin' fuh theyselves" (Hurtson 183).

Chemistry- Alkanes and Alkenes

The process of naming compounds allows chemists to communicate formulae in words rather than in chemical symbols. There are, however, a few rules about naming compounds which need to be known in order to write a formula in word form or translate a compound in word form into chemical symbols. Ionic compounds If the compound is ionic, then the name of the cation (usually metal) comes first, followed by the ‘compound' name of the anion.To find the compound name of an anion, replace the end of the element's name with ‘ide'. name of cation + name of anion, suffix ‘ide' E. g. NaCl: sodium, the cation, first, followed by chlorine changed with the suffix ‘ide' = sodium chloride If the anion is polyatomic and contains oxygen, then the suffix is ‘ate'. name of cation + name of polyatomic oxygen anion, suffix ‘ate' E. g. Na2CO3: sodium, the cation, first, followed by a polyatomic group containing carbon and oxygen to form carbonate = sodium carbonate Note:E. g. MgO: magnesium, the cation, first, followed by oxygen changed with the suffix ‘ide' because oxygen is the sole ion and not part of a polyatomic group = magnesium oxide Sometimes if the compound contains hydrogen, the word ‘hydrogen' shortens to ‘bi' such as with NaHCO3, which is known as sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate. Hydrogen compounds If the compound contains hydrogen and a metal, the metal comes first, followed by the word ‘hydride', to denote the hydrogen component. etal + hydride E. g. NaH: sodium, the metal, first, followed by hydrogen changed with the suffix ‘ide' = sodium hydride If the compound contains hydrogen and a non-metal and does not contain water (H2O), then the hydrogen comes first, followed by the element's name replaced with the ‘ide' suffix. hydrogen + non-metal, suffix ‘ide' E. g. HF: hydrogen first, followed by fluorine changed with the suffix ‘ide' = hydrogen fluoride If the hydrogen non-met al compound dissolves in water, it tarts with the ‘hydro' prefix, followed by the element's name replaced with an ‘ic' suffix, followed by ‘acid'. hydro(name of element, suffix ‘ic') acid E. g. HCl: hydro, then chlorine with an ‘ic' suffix, then ‘acid' = hydrochloric acid Oxygen compounds When naming ionic compounds that contain oxygen the basic rule is similar. If the compound contains hydrogen and an oxygen anion (oxyanion) and does not contain water, then hydrogen comes first, followed by the element name with the suffix ‘ate'. hydrogen + element, suffix ‘ate' E. g.HCO3: hydrogen followed by carbon with the suffix ‘ate' = hydrogen carbonate The ‘ate' rule is used for the most common or the only compound made with an oxyanion. Some compounds, however, form more than one type of compound with oxygen and the amount of oxygen will affect the prefixes and suffixes used. This occurs for all oxyanions, with or without hydrogen involved. Table 1. 1: Naming more than one type of oxygen compound Oxygen level| Prefix| Element| Suffix| A little oxygen| hypo-| | -ite| Some oxygen| | | -ite| More oxygen| | | -ate| A lot of oxygen| per-| | -ate|E. g. Chlorine forms four different oxyanions named: ClO = hypochlorite ClO2 = chlorite ClO3 = chlorate ClO4 = perchlorate The oxygen level corresponds with the relative amounts in different compounds and not necessarily the specific numbers of oxygen atoms. If an element forms just two types of oxyanion compounds, then the suffixes ‘ite' and ‘ate' will suffice. If the hydrogen oxyanion compound is dissolved in water, it forms an acid using similar rules, only the ‘ite' suffix changes to ‘ous' and the ‘ate' suffix changes to ‘ic', followed by the word ‘acid'.Table 1. 2: Naming more than one type of hydrogen oxyanion acid Oxygen level| Prefix| Element| Suffix| Acid| A little oxygen| hypo-| | -ous| | Some oxygen| | | -ous| | More oxy gen| | | -ic| | A lot of oxygen| per-| | -ic| | E. g. The above example with chlorine and oxygen plus hydrogen: HClO = hypochlorous acid HClO2 = chlorous acid HClO3 = chloric acid HClO4 = perchloric acid Covalent compounds If a compound contains two non-metals in a covalent bond, then: * the least electronegative element is named first if the compound contains hydrogen, hydrogen is named first * the number of atoms of each element is indicated by a prefix * if the first element only has one atom the prefix is not used * the name of the element has the suffix ‘ide' least electronegative + number prefix, most electronegative element, suffix ‘ide' The prefixes used to number the atoms come from Greek and are as follows: 1 = mono- or mon- 2 = di- 3 = tri- 4 = tetra- 5 = penta- | 6 = hexa- 7 = hepta- 8 = octa- 9 = nona- 10 = deca-| E. g.CO: carbon, the least electronegative atom, first, followed by the prefix ‘mon' to indicate one atom of oxygen, the most electronegativ e atom, with the suffix ‘ide' = carbon monoxide CO2 carbon, the least electronegative atom, first, followed by the prefix ‘di' to indicate two atoms of oxygen, the most electronegative atom, with the suffix ‘ide' = carbon dioxide H2O the prefix ‘di' to indicate two atoms of hydrogen, which has naming priority, followed by ‘mon' to indicate one atom of oxygen = dihydrogen monoxide Common names There are a number of common names that chemists like to use instead of the proper scientific names.Most common names and formulae are well-known. It is recommended that common names and formulae be written down as they are encountered so they can be memorised later. Here are a few examples: Common name | Proper name| Chemical formula| water| dihydrogen monoxide| H2O| baking soda| sodium hydrogen carbonate| NaHCO3| table salt| sodium chloride| NaCl| limestone| calcium carbonate| CaCO3| quartz| silicon dioxide| SiO2| See animation 1. What is an acid? Ancient civilis ations had already identified acid as a sour-tasting substance that corroded metal, but confirmation about the exact nature of acid eluded chemists until the 20th century.Early in the 20th century, a number of chemists developed specific chemical definitions for the term ‘acid', although many of these definitions refer to subatomic processes, going into much greater depth than required here. The simplest, most general definition is that an acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and which can release hydrogen cations (H+) during a reaction. The strength of an acid depends on its ability to release hydrogen ions – stronger acids release hydrogen ions more readily. Some of the properties of acid are that they: * Dissolve in water to form excess hydrogen ions Are highly reactive and will corrode most metals * Conduct electricity * Have a sour taste (strong acids are dangerous and should not be taste-tested) * Produce a stinging sensation (as above, strong acids should n ot be handled) There are some common edible acids such as citric acid, which is found in fruits like oranges, lemons and limes, acetic acid, found in vinegar, carbonic acid, which is the ‘fizz' in soft drinks and dairy products, which contain lactic acid. Examples of other acids include: sulphuric acid, present in batteries; and hydrochloric acid, which breaks down food in your stomach. See image 1.Acids like vinegar are used to preserve food because many organisms cannot live in an acidic environment. Similarly, fermentation of food can also produce an acidic environment for preservation purposes – vinegar is an acetic acid formed from grapes, lactic acid comes from fermentation of milk. What is a base? Bases are substances with the opposite properties to acids, that is, a base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions in a reaction. Strong bases will accept more hydrogen ions than weak ones. Alkalis are soluble bases that contain hydroxide ions (OH-). Some properties of bases include that they: Dissolve in water to absorb excess hydrogen ions * Neutralise the effect of acid * Denature (change the molecular structure) of proteins * Have a bitter taste (strong bases are dangerous and should not be taste-tested) * Feel soapy (as above, strong bases should not be handled) Basic substances in everyday use include sodium hydrogen carbonate, also known as sodium bicarbonate, used in baking to help bread rise, sodium carbonate, used to make soap, and magnesium hydroxide, commonly used in indigestion remedies. Because of an ability to denature proteins, basic substances break down grease and make good cleaners.Considering that the human body is made up of proteins, this makes bases more dangerous for humans than acids. Clarification of terms Before proceeding, it is important to clarify some terms used in experiments with acids and bases. Strong substances are either acids that readily lose hydrogen cations or bases that readily gain hydrogen ions; weak substances less readily lose or gain hydrogen ions. For clarity, concentrated acids and bases are either pure or come dissolved in very little water, while dilute substances are dissolved in a lot of water.Therefore, strong and weak refer to the chemical reactivity of an acidic/basic substance while dilute and concentrate refer to the ratio of water into which the substance dissolves. Indicators It is also important to learn about some of the ways in which to test the strength of acidic and basic substances, since it is not permitted to taste or touch chemicals in a laboratory environment. Chemical substances are classified as acidic (containing acid), basic (containing base) or neutral (containing neither acid nor base). Chemists have developed a number of methods to test the acidity or alkalinity of a substance using chemical indicators.These indicators use the pH scale, with measurements from one to 14 based on the activity of hydrogen ions in the solution. Substances with a low pH are acidic. Substances with a reading of seven are neutral while basic solutions will elicit a higher reading. Developed by Danish scientist Soren Sorensen, the pH scale may have come from the German word ‘potenz' (meaning power or potency) and ‘H', the chemical symbol for hydrogen. It is also possible the term is derived from the Latin ‘pondus hydrogenii', which translates to ‘weight of hydrogen'. See animation 1.Many plants are excellent indicators of pH as they need optimum acidity/alkalinity in the soil to grow. Hydrangeas produce white or blue flowers in acidic soil or pink flowers in basic soil. Blue or red litmus paper, made from a fungal/bacterial growth called lichen, turns red in acid or blue in a base but will not change colour in a neutral solution. A synthetic indicator, bromothymol blue, starts blue and then changes yellow in acid. If placed in a basic or neutral substance it will remain blue. Another indicator would be needed to find out if the substance were neutral or basic.This demonstrates that when using an indicator it is necessary to observe a change in colour to define whether a substance is acidic, basic or neutral. Most indicators have only two colours. The universal indicator is an instrument that mixes several types of indicators and colours in order to show whether a substance is acidic, basic or neutral. Universal indicators have a colour scale that corresponds to the numbered pH scale. After testing, the colour of the paper is matched to a number on the scale for a more exact reading of acidity or alkalinity. See image 2. ReactionsSince acids and bases are more or less opposite substances, they tend to cancel each other out in a process called neutralisation. This reaction produces a salt and water. acid + base salt + water Neutralisation is commonly used in a number of remedies, such as the treatment of bites and stings. Bluebottles inject a basic substance when they sting, so a weak acid like vinegar ( acetic acid) will neutralise a bluebottle sting. Conversely, bee stings are slightly acidic, so a bee sting would be neutralised with a weak base, such as sodium bicarbonate. Seafood gives off an odour due to the basic amines it contains.An acidic acid substance such as lemon juice is squeezed over it to neutralise the smell. Excess acid in the stomach causes indigestion, so it can be neutralised with a weak base called an antacid. An example of an equation using this format is when hydrochloric acid meets sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O Adding an acid to a base does not necessarily mean that the product is automatically neutralised. The strength of each of the reactants must be matched so that all the ions released by the acid find a place with the base.A strong acid with a weak base will result in an acidic salt, a weak acid with a strong base will result in a basic salt, while acids and bases of the same strength will neutralise completel y. Both acidic and metallic substances are highly reactive, which is why acid reacts aggressively in the presence of metal, corroding the metal much faster than moisture and air. The combination of an acid and a metal produces a metallic salt and hydrogen gas in an equation represented like this: acid + metal metallic salt + hydrogen The hydrogen ions are easily lost and replaced by the metallic ions, forming a metallic salt.The hydrogen then forms molecules with itself, resulting in hydrogen gas. An example of this is sulphuric acid and magnesium producing magnesium sulphate salt and hydrogen gas: H2SO4 + Mg MgSO4 + H2 No Flash, No Problem Highlight to reveal names Formula| Names| N2F6| Dinitrogen Hexafluoride| CO2| Carbon Dioxide| SiF4| Silicon Tetrafluoride| CBr4| Carbon Tetrabromide| NCl3| Nitrogen Trichloride| P2S3| Diphosphorous Trisulfide| CO| Carbon Monoxide| NO2| Nitrogen Dioxide| SF2| Sulfur Difluoride| PF5| Phosphorous Pentafluoride| SO2| Sulfur Dioxide| NO| Nitrogen Mono xide| CCl4| carbon tetrachloride|P2O5| diphosphorus pentoxide| | | Rules 1. The first element is named first, using the elements name. 2. Second element is named as an Anion (suffix â€Å"-ide†) 3. Prefixes are used to denote the number of atoms 4. â€Å"Mono† is not used to name the first element Note: when the addition of the Greek prefix places two vowels adjacent to one another, the â€Å"a† (or the â€Å"o†) at the end of the Greek prefix is usually dropped; e. g. , â€Å"nonaoxide† would be written as â€Å"nonoxide†, and â€Å"monooxide† would be written as â€Å"monoxide†. The â€Å"i† at the end of the prefixes â€Å"di-† and â€Å"tri-† are never dropped. Prefix| number indicated| | mono-| 1| | di-| 2| | tri-| 3| | tetra-| 4| | penta-| 5| | hexa-| 6| | hepta-| 7| | octa-| 8| | nona-| 9| | deca-| 10| Carbon Allotropes by siebo— last modified April 20, 2007 – 11:54 The allotropes of ca rbon are the different molecular configurations (allotropes) that pure carbon can take. Following is a list of the allotropes of carbon, ordered by notability, and extent of industrial use. Diamond Main article: Diamond Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon, whose hardness and high dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and jewelry.Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral, making it an excellent abrasive and also means a diamond holds its polish extremely well and retains luster. The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use.In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 million carats (80,000 kg) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use—nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period. The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use.Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production ofsynthetic diamond, future applications a re beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as asemiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics.Significant research efforts in Japan, Europe, and the United Statesare under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers. Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four othercarbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. This stable network of covalent bonds and the three dimensional arrangement of bonds that diamond is so strong. GraphiteMain article: Graphite Graphite (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek : â€Å"to draw/write†, for its use in pencils) is oneof the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, grap hite is a conductor, and can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical arc lamp. Graphite holds the distinction ofbeing the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered. Graphite is able to conduct electricity due to the unpaired fourth electron in each carbon atom. This unpaired 4th electron forms delocalisedplanes above and below the planes of the carbon atoms.These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers. Graphite powder is used as a dry lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant. This fact lead to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other lay ered dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide.Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for this effect. When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as prosthetic heart valves. Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties.In its pure glassy (isotropic) synthetic forms, pyrolytic graphite and carbon fiber graphite is an extremely strong, heat-resistant (to 3000  °C) material, used in reentry shields for missile nosecones, solid rocket engines, high temperature reactors, brake shoes and electric motor brushes. Intumescent or expandable graphites are used in fire seals, fitted around the perimeter of a fire door. During a fire the graphite intumesces (expa nds and chars) to resist fire penetration and prevent the spread of fumes. A typical start expansion temperature (SET) is between 150 and 300 degrees Celsius.Amorphous carbon Main article: Amorphous carbon Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have any crystalline structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic positions. While entirely amorphous carbon can be made, most of the material described as â€Å"amorphous† actually contains crystallites of graphite [1] or diamond [2]with varying amounts of amorphous carbon holding them together, making them technically polycrystalline or nanocrystalline materials.Commercial carbon also usually contains significant quantities of other elements, which may form crystalline impurities. Coal and soot are both informally called amorphous carbon. However, both are products of pyrolysis, which does not produce true amorphous carbon under norma l conditions. The coal industry divides coal up into various grades depending on the amount of carbon present in the sample compared to the amount ofimpurities. The highest grade, anthracite, is about 90 percent carbon and 10% other elements. Bituminous coal is about 75-90 percent carbon, and lignite is the name for coal that is around 55 percent carbon.Fullerenes Main article: Fullerene The fullerenes are recently-discovered allotropes of carbon named after the scientist and architect Richard Buckminster Fuller, but were discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are molecules composed entirely of carbon, which take the form ofa hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Spherical fullerenes are sometimes called buckyballs, while cylindrical fullerenes are called buckytubes or nanotubes.As of the early twenty-first century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use — binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composedof a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar. Carbon nanotubes Main article: Carbon nanotubeCarbon nanotubes are cylindrical carbon molecules with novel properties that make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications (e. g. , nano-electronics, optics, materials applications, etc. ). They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat. Inorganic nanotubes have also been synthesized. A nanotube (also known as a buckytube) is a member of the fullerene structural family, which also incl udes buckyballs. Whereas buckyballs are spherical in shape, a nanotube is cylindrical, with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure.Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers(approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes: single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). Aggregated diamond nanorods Main article: Aggregated diamond nanorods Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are an allotrope of carbon believed to be the least compressible material known to humankind, as measured by its sothermal bulk modulus; aggregated diamond nanorods have a modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a conventional diamondhas a modulus of 442 GPa. ADNRs are also 0. 3% denser than regular diamond. The ADNR material is also harder than type IIa diamond and ultrahard fullerite. Glassy carbon Main article: Glassy carbon Glassy carbon is a class of non-graphitizing carbon which is widely used as an electrode material in electrochemistry, as well as for high temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices.It was first produced by workers at the laboratories of The General Electric Company, UK, in the early 1960s, using cellulose as the starting material. A short time later, Japanese workers produced a similar material from phenolic resin. The preparation of glassy carbon involves subjecting the organic precursors to a series of heat treatments at temperatures up to 3000oC. Unlike many non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to gases and are chemically extremely inert, especially those which have been prepared at very high temperatures.It has been demonstrated that the rates of oxidation of certain glassy carbons in oxygen, carbon dioxide or water vapour are lower than those of any other carbon. They are also highly resist ant to attack by acids. Thus, while normal graphiteis reduced to a powder by a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids at room temperature, glassy carbon is unaffected by such treatment, even after several months. Carbon nanofoam Main article: Carbon nanofoam Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V.Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. Each cluster is about 6 nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon atoms linked in graphite-like sheets that are given negative curvature by the inclusion of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of what happens in the case of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets are given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.The large-scale structure of carbon nanofoam is similar to that of an aerogel, but with 1% of the density of previously produced carbon aerogels – only a few times the density of air at sea level. Unlike carbon aerogels, carbon nanofoam is a poor electrical conductor. Lonsdaleite Main article: Lonsdaleite Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of the carbon allotrope diamond, believed to form when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice.Lonsdaleite was first identified from the Canyon Diablo meteorite at Barringer Crater (also known as Meteor Crater) in Arizona. It was first discovered in 1967. Lonsdaleite occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in the Canyon Diablo meteorite; Kenna meteorite, New Mexico; and Allan Hills (ALH) 77283, Victoria Land, Antarctica meteorite. It has also been reported from the Tunguska impact site, Russia. Chaoite Main article: Chaoite Chaoite is a mineral believed to have been formed in meteorite impac ts.It has been described as slightly harder than graphite with a reflection colour of grey to white. However, the existence of carbyne phases is disputed – see the entry on chaoite for details. Variability of carbon The system of carbon allotropes spans an astounding range ofextremes, considering that they are all merely structural formations ofthe same element. Between diamond and graphite * Diamond is hardest mineral known to man (10 on Mohs scale), but graphite is one of the softest (1 – 2 on Mohs scale). * Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, but graphite is a very good lubricant. Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, but graphite is a conductor of electricity. * Diamond is usually transparent, but graphite is opaque. * Diamond crystallizes in the isometric system but graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system. Between amorphous carbon and nanotubes * Amorphous carbon is among the easiest materials to synthesize, but carbon nanotubes are extremely expensive to make. * Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic, but carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials ever produced. ALKENE NAMES Root names give the number of carbons in the longest continuous chain.Alkene names are formed by dropping the â€Å"ane† and replacing it with â€Å"ene†The following list gives samples:Example: root = propane – drop â€Å"ane† = â€Å"prop† alkene = â€Å"prop† + alkene ending = â€Å"ene† = propene | No. of Carbons| Root Name| Formula CnH2n| Structure| 2| ethene| C2H4| CH2=CH2| 3| propene| C3H6| CH2=CHCH3| 4| 1-butene| C4H8| CH2=CHCH2CH3| 5| 1-pentene| C5H10| CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3| Following is a list of alkanes showing their chemical formulas, their names, the number of isomers, and the melting and the boiling point. Please note that, except for the first four alkanes (n=1.. ), their chemical names can be derived from the number of C atoms by using Greek numerical prefixes denoting the number of carbons and the suffix â€Å"-ane†. Formula| Name(s)| No. of Isomers| m. p. [ °C]| b. p. [ °C]| CH4| methane (natural gas)| 1| -183| -162| C2H6| ethane| 1| -172| -89| C3H8| propane; dimethyl methane| 1| -188| -42| C4H10| n-butane; methylethyl methane| 2| -138| 0| C5H12| n-pentane| 3| -130| 36| C6H14| n-hexane| 5| -95| 69| C7H16| n-heptane| 9| -91| 98| C8H18| n-octane| 18| -57| 126| C9H20| n-nonane| 35| -54| 151| C10H22| n-decane| 75| -30| 174|The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons contain only two elements, hydrogen and carbon. A saturated hydrocarbon or alkane is a hydrocarbon in which all of the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. Each carbon atom forms four bonds and each hydrogen forms a single bond to a carbon. The bonding around each carbon atom is tetrahedral, so all bond angles are 109. 5 °. As a result, the carbon atoms in higher alkanes are arranged in zig-zag rather than linear patterns. Straight Chain Alkanes The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.There are two ways of writing a condensed structural formula. For example, butane may be written as CH3CH2CH2CH3 or CH3(CH2)2CH3. Rules for Naming Alkanes * The parent name of the molecule is determined by the number of carbons in the longest chain. * In the case where two chains have the same number of carbons, the parent is the chain with the most substituents. * The carbons in the chain are numbered starting from the end nearest the first substituent. * In the case where there are substituents having the same number of carbons from both ends, numbering starts from the end nearest the next substituent. When more than one of a given substituent is present, a prefix is applied to indicate the number of substituents. Use di- for two, tri- for three, tetra- for four, etc. and use the number assigned to the carbon to indicate the position of each substituent. Branched Alkanes * Branched substituents are numbered starting from the carbon of the substituent attached to the parent chain. From this carbon, count the number of carbons in the longest chain of the substituent. The substituent is named as an alkyl group based on the number of carbons in this chain. Numbering of the substituent chain starts from the carbon attached to the parent chain. * The entire name of the branched substituent is placed in parentheses, preceded by a number indicating which parent-chain carbon it joins. * Substituents are listed in alphabetical order. To alphabetize, ignore numerical (di-, tri-, tetra-) prefixes (e. g. , ethyl would come before dimethyl), but don't ignore don't ignore positional prefixes such as iso and tert (e. g. , triethyl comes before tertbutyl). Cyclic Alkanes * The parent name is determined by the number of carbons in the largest ring (e. g. , cycloalkane such as cyclohexane). In the case where the ring is attached to a chain containing additional carbons, the ring is considered to be a su bstituent on the chain. A substituted ring that is a substituent on something else is named using the rules for branched alkanes. * When two rings are attached to each other, the larger ring is the parent and the smaller is a cycloalkyl substituent. * The carbons of the ring are numbered such that the substituents are given the lowest possible numbers. Straight Chain Alkanes # Carbon| Name| Molecular Formula| Structural Formula| 1 | Methane | CH4 | CH4 | 2 | Ethane | C2H6 | CH3CH3 | | Propane | C3H8 | CH3CH2CH3 | 4 | Butane | C4H10 | CH3CH2CH2CH3 | 5 | Pentane | C5H12 | CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 | 6 | Hexane | C6H14 | CH3(CH2)4CH3 | 7 | Heptane | C7H16 | CH3(CH2)5CH3 | 8 | Octane | C8H18 | CH3(CH2)6CH3 | 9 | Nonane | C9H20 | CH3(CH2)7CH3 | 10 | Decane | C10H22 | CH3(CH2)8CH3 | Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds. They are also called unsaturated hydrocarbons. The molecular formular is CnH2n. This is the same molecular formula as a cycloalkane. Structure of Alkenes 1. The two carbon ato ms of a double bond and the four atoms attached to them lie in a plane, with bond angles of approximately 120 ° . A double bond consists of one sigma bond formed by overlap of sp2 hybrid orbitals and one pi bond formed by overlap of parallel 2 P orbitals Here is a chart containing the systemic name for the first twenty straight chain alkenes. Name| Molecular formula| Ethene| C2H4| Propene| C3H6| Butene| C4H8| Pentene| C5H10| Hexene| C6H12| Heptene| C7H14| Octene| C8H16| Nonene| C9H18| Decene| C10H20| Undecene| C11H22| Dodecene| C12H24| Tridecene| C13H26| Tetradecene| C14H28| Pentadecene| C15H30| Hexadecene| C16H32| Heptadecene| C17H34| Octadecene| C18H36| Nonadecene| C19H38|Eicosene| C20H40| Did you notice how there is no methene? Because it is impossible for a Carbon to have a double bond with nothing. The Basic Rules: A. For straight chain alkenes, it is the same basic rules as nomenclature of alkanes except change the suffix to â€Å"-ene. † i. Find the Longest Carbon Ch ain that Contains the Carbon Carbon double bond. (If you have two ties for longest Carbon chain, and both chains contain a Carbon Carbon double bond, then look for most substituted chain. ) ii. Give the lowest possible number to the Carbon Carbon double bond. 1.Do not need to number cycloalkenes because it is understood that the double bond is in the one position. 2. Alkenes that have the same molecular formula but the location of the doble bonds are different means they are constitutional isomers. 3. Functional Groups with higher priority: iii. Add substituents and their position to the alkene as prefixes. Of course remember to give the lowest numbers possible. And remember to name them in alphabetical order when writting them. iv. Next is identifying stereoisomers. when there are only two non hydrogen attachments to the alkene then use cis and trans to name the molecule.In this diagram this is a cis conformation. It has both the substituents going upward. (This molecule would be c alled (cis) 5-chloro-3-heptene. ) Trans would look like this v. On the other hand if there are 3 or 4 non-hydrogen different atoms attached to the alkene then use the E, Z system. E (entgegen) means the higher priority groups are opposite one another relative to the double bond. Z (zusammen) means the higher priority groups are on the same side relative to the double bond. (You could think of Z as Zame Zide to help memorize it. ) In this example it is E-4-chloro-3-heptene.It is E because the Chlorine and the CH2CH3 are the two higher priorities and they are on opposite sides. vi. A hydroxyl group gets precedence over th double bond. Therefore alkenes containing alchol groups are called alkenols. And the prefix becomes –enol. And this means that now the alcohol gets lowest priority over the alkene. vii. Lastly remember that alkene substituents are called alkenyl. Suffix –enyl. B. For common names i. remove the -ane suffix and add -ylene. There are a couple of unique one s like ethenyl's common name is vinyl and 2-propenyl's common name is allyl.

Computers for Personal Use - 1162 Words

* A personal computer (PC) is a general-purpose computer, whose size, capabilities, and original sale price makes it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly by an end-user with no intervening computer operator. * Software applications for most personal computers include, but are not limited to, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, Web browsers and e-mail clients, digital mediaplayback, games, and myriad personal productivity and special-purpose software applications. Gaming Computer * A gaming computer is a standard desktop computer that typically has high-performance hardware, such as a more powerful video card, processor, and memory, in order to handle the requirements of demanding video games†¦show more content†¦Computers help in keeping a record of the cash. Computers help in giving all kinds of information regarding any account in the bank ENTERTAINMENT * Computers are used for playing games, listening to music and watching movies. Computers are used for making cartoon movies and animation films. Computers are used for making drawings. RAILWAY STATIONS and AIRPORTS * Computers help in giving information about ticket reservations and bookings. * Computers help in giving information about the arrival and departure timings of trains and aeroplanes. * Computers help in keeping records of all the passengers. OFFICE * Computers are used to type and print documents, letters, etc. * Computers help in keeping records of office employees. * Computers help in sending e-mails HOSPITALS * Computers help in keeping records of all the patients in a hospital. Computers help doctors in controlling operation theatre machines. * Computers help in doing a number of medical tests. DESIGNING * Computers help in designing magazines, newspapers, books, advertisment, etc. Computers help in designing buildings, houses, etc. Greeting Cards : * You can send and receive greetings pertaining to different occasions. 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